From the author: In this first book, F. Perls presented the philosophy, methodology, theory and practice of a new approach to the treatment of neuroses, which would later be called Gestalt -approach or Gestalt therapy (GT). For five years, this book stood first in the queue of required reading literary sources. The following were read, but She always remained first, growing with rumors of complexity and significance. With the start of my studies at the third stage, I decided to put an end to my cowardice and personally get acquainted with this work, already mythical for me. The rumors about the complexity were confirmed. However, in the process of reading, abstract “complexity” was transformed into concrete questions. For example, what, by and large, did the author want to say by writing this book, and how to integrate what he read into existing ideas about Gestalt therapy. The answer to these questions was the proposed “navigation” through the book by F. Perls “Ego, Hunger and Aggression.” Written in the genre of “marginal notes,” it may become useful to those who are also trying to study this rich source of ideas. In this first book, F. Perls presented the philosophy, methodology, theory and practice of a new approach to the treatment of neuroses, which later will be called the Gestalt approach or Gestalt therapy (GT). The book is written in the form of a polemic with psychoanalysis, and not so much with psychoanalysis, but with its founder, Sigmund Freud. This polemical form will, if possible, be preserved in the proposed navigation. Ideas and theories, no matter how innovative, never arise out of nowhere. They are necessarily preceded by other ideas and theories. Such prerequisites for the emergence of GT were: Psychoanalysis (Freud, Adler, Horney, Freuder), psychoanalytic approach to working with the body (Reich, Alexander). Holism (Smuts). Dialectical materialism (Marx). The idea of ​​​​"Creative indifference" by Friedlander. Gestalt psychology (laws of perception), as opposed to associative psychology. Theory of relativity (Einstein). Semantics (a branch of linguistics that studies the meanings of words). I. Philosophy of the new approach. Philosophy is a system of views, beliefs, ideas and principles that guide science or a person in his private and professional activities. Based on this, we can talk about both personal philosophy and philosophy of activity. Worldview issues are always difficult to explain. Being knowledge about knowledge, they concern the area of ​​thinking that operates with abstract concepts. At the same time, the words in which these concepts are clothed also turn into abstractions. Only the examples with which the authors illustrate their ideas and principles remain clear. So it is in the book “Ego, Hunger and Aggression”: the examples are clear and beautiful, but the ideas that illustrate these examples penetrated my reader’s consciousness with difficulty and not immediately. The following is an attempt to understand the philosophy of both Fritz Perls and the new psychotherapeutic direction, as it was understood by me. 1. Differential thinking. This is the title of the first chapter of the book “Ego, Hunger and Aggression.” And these are the words that can characterize the author’s worldview. Its main ideas are taken from dialectics*. Having excluded the metaphysical** component, Perls called his philosophical approach differential thinking (thinking in opposites (differences)). Marx, in his time, did the same, applying the laws of dialectics to the development of society, and called such a scientific worldview dialectical materialism. * Dialectics (Greek - the art of arguing, reasoning) - the doctrine of the formation and development of being and knowledge and a method of thinking based on this doctrine, which has as its subject the contradiction of the content of this thinking.** Metaphysics - the science of the supersensible (inaccessible to experience) principles of existence. Next will be given the three basic laws of dialectics with quotation confirmation from the book. Laws of dialectics: a) Unity and struggle of opposites. “Every event firstrefers to the zero point, from which differentiation into opposites then begins. These opposites in their specific context reveal great similarities to each other (Friedlander).” Opposites: shame - pride; disgust - attraction; disappointment - expectation; resistance - assistance. b) The transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones. Every emotion, every sensation turns from pleasant to unpleasant when their tension or intensity exceeds a certain limit. Example. When tension increases, pleasure becomes pain, a hug becomes a piercing, a kiss becomes a bite, a caress becomes a blow. c) The law of the negation of negations. The essence of this law is that each subsequent stage of development negates the previous one. With this double negative, development returns to its starting point. However, this point differs from the original one, because during development it acquired new properties and qualities inherent in all stages of development. Thus, a new phenomenon appears in which the signs of the progenitor phenomenon can be traced. Examples: v Aversion - resistance to inappropriate food. Resistance to resistance (suppression of disgust) - leads to the emergence of a new quality - greed, which manifests itself in loss of sensitivity and the ability to receive saturation.v Shame - emotional resistance; suppression of shame causes overcompensation - shamelessness. 2. Holistic (or, more precisely, organismic) principle. Holism - (Greek whole, whole) - means the philosophy of integrity. The term and the idea were introduced by Smuts (1926). Smuts considered such aspects as matter, life, consciousness, while Perls considered aspects of body, soul and consciousness. Therefore, we can say that Perls was guided not so much by a holistic approach as by an organismic one. An example of a holistic approach. Emotions reflect needs. Emotions include a bodily component (feelings) and a mental component (experiences). At the same time, an image is formed in the consciousness that is complementary to the need (Thus, a lack of fluid in the body is felt in the body as dehydration, in the soul as thirst, and in consciousness as an image of a source of water). Psychoanalysis was guided by the principle of isolationism. An example of this was the approach to the soul, body and consciousness as different parts that can be separated and put back together. 3. The principle of relativism* (Freud was guided by the principle of determinism**). Example: subjectivism in the perception of “good”/“bad” as “familiar”/“unfamiliar”. Perls's functional thinking, in contrast to Freud's causal thinking, allowed, instead of answering the questions “why?”, to seek answers to the questions “how?” *Relativism - (Latin - relative) - recognition of relativity, convention and subjectivity of knowledge, denial of absolute ethical norms and rules.** Determinism - (Latin - determine) - philosophical doctrine of the natural relationship and causality of all phenomena.*** Causal (lat. - causative) - causally determined. 4. The principle of reality. If we assume that the objective world exists, then for a specific individual it is presented only in the form of a subjective world. And this subjective world is organized for him according to the “figure/ground” principle, where the actual need of the individual becomes the figure. Freud adhered to a different interpretation of the principle of reality. In his philosophy, the reality principle is the opposition of "impulsive" biological behavior to the ability for sublimation and delay of gratification required by society. In this case, there is some similarity with the “figure/ground” law, which consists in highlighting cathected* objects. However, this similarity is relative, because only libidinal cathexis was implied. *Cathexis - (Greek - retention, detention) a psychoanalytic concept that denotes the direction of mental energy (libido) towards an object and fixation on it. 5. The principle of the present (here and now). This principle was used by Perls in contrast to Freud’s “historicism” and Adler’s futurism. “There is no other reality other than the present. Can be isolatedthe present from the past (causality) and from the future (goal-setting), but any rejection of the present can lead to loss of balance and orientation” (Perls). II.Methodology* Gestalt approach. Methodology* (from the Greek methodos - the path of research or knowledge, logos - concept, teaching) - the study of methods** and principles of knowledge. Method** (in the broad sense) - a way of organizing cognitive activity. Method (in the narrow sense of the word) is an organization of research that involves the use of appropriate techniques and procedures. The methodology is based on a certain worldview. The philosophical aspect of the methodology of the new approach to the treatment of neuroses, proposed by Perls in his first book, was discussed above. The direct study of the patient’s personality (not yet a client) was organized around the phenomenological method, which was developed by K. Levin and a group of Gestalt psychologists in the 20-40s of the twentieth century. century. These studies were later called Field Theory. Currently, Field Theory is the methodological basis of GT. Psychoanalysis was guided by other ideological principles and other methods that flowed from these principles. Accordingly, the method of free association caused many criticisms from Perls. III. GT theory. In his later book Witness to Therapy, Perls noted that in Ego, Hunger, and Aggression he introduced a theory of aggression, a theory of personality, and a theory of awareness. This hint from the author was very helpful in further structuring the text of the primary source being studied. Theory of aggression. Freud believed that aggression is present in human nature and is caused by the presence of the instinct of destruction (death - Thanatos). Perls was convinced that aggression is of a dental nature. It is associated with the digestive instinct. At the same time, it needs an application object. The biological role of aggression is the assimilation of physical and mental food. The restoration of healthy mental and physical functioning of the individual occurs due to the restoration of the biological function of aggression, which includes: restoration of sensitivity to the taste of food (physical and mental), full biting (accepting something new) , active chewing, removal of metabolic products from the body. If dental aggression does not find a healthy use (as a result of a ban on “biting” or a ban on actions to master the world), then aggression: is sublimated (discharged on an indirect object); is wasted (the dummy complex is directed to a safe object); is suppressed; accumulates (which leads to its exaggeration). Suppression of dental aggression leads to: confluence - (suppression of disgust leads to oral frigidity, which in turn leads to the fact that material and mental food enters the body unhindered); introjection - (unchewed food enters the body, which remains part of the environment environment; at the same time, contact with any introjected material is powerlessly aggressive, which is expressed in anger, grumbling, nagging, complaints, irritation); projection - (introjected material is removed from the body (unchanged)); retroflection - (when aggression is redirected to oneself). organism). Introjection and projection form part of the paranoid complex. Personality theory. In matters of personality theory, Freud adhered to the ideas of structure. Even the name itself (psychoanalysis) reflects a structural, isolationist approach to personality, which was fully consistent with the paradigm of individualism. Analysis (ancient Greek - decomposition, dismemberment) is the operation of mental or real dismemberment of the whole (thing, property, process or relationship between objects) into its component parts. Perls, on the other hand, was guided by the ideas of processuality and integrativeness, which in the postmodern paradigm were transformed into the theory of self. Freud, in his innovation, viewed personality from topographical, structural, energetic and historical points of view. Let's try to compare the views of these two great people,keeping to the same context. Topographical model of levels of consciousness. Freud identifies such personality structures as Conscious ↔ Unconscious (↔ demonstrates the interpenetration of mental material). He was convinced that all drives and instincts, as well as repressed or projected material, are localized in one place - in the Unconscious. The doctor’s task is to return unconscious material to consciousness, which automatically, according to Freud, leads to cure. From Perls's point of view, the question of the Unconscious is controversial. He draws attention to the following contradiction. If psychic material is in the Unconscious, then how to work with it, because that’s why it’s Unconscious, because there is no access to it. If the material is accessible to consciousness, then what kind of Unconscious is it? Perls expresses his readiness to consider the existence of the Unconscious, if we assume the existence of two of its types: the biological Unconscious (in Hartmann’s understanding * - as the unity of Will and Idea - the Unconscious, which underlies the emergence of the Universe ).the psychoanalytic Unconscious, which includes elements that were previously conscious (aspects of the Ego). These elements are obvious to observers, but not to the subject himself. Therefore, we can talk about material that is unconscious at the moment. The healing is the integration of the returned material into the Ego. *Eduard Hartmann (1842-1906) - German philosopher, creator of the “philosophy of the unconscious.” The views of the two thinkers also differed on issues of the Subconscious (Preconscious). Freud denied its existence. Perls believed that its existence can be recognized in cases where emotions are recognized but cannot be expressed (for example, in cases of shyness). Personality structure. Freud identified the following structures in personality: Id → Ego ← Superego (arrows indicate the direction of influence on the structures). “Id” is synonymous with the concept of “It” by Groddeck *. Being the seat of instincts, the Id puts pressure on the Ego. The ego is formed by introjects, is closely related to identification, and is a weak structure that is also under pressure from the superego. Moreover, the concepts of Super-Ego and Ego-Ideal are used almost synonymously. *Grodek (Grodek) Georg (1866 - 1936) - German psychiatrist, psychoanalyst and writer, one of the founders of psychosomatic medicine. In 1923, in his work “The Book of “It”” he introduced into scientific circulation the idea and concept of “It” (“It”), which in a modified form (“It”, “Id”) were used by S. Freud in the development of psychoanalytic theory personality. Perls believed that it is necessary to separate the concepts of Super-Ego (conscience) and Ego-Ideal (ideals). This division makes it possible to notice the difference in the direction of the influence of these structures on the Ego and gives it strength as follows. aggression is directed to the Ego. The tension between them is perceived as a feeling of guilt. From the Ego to the ideal, which exists in the form of images, the main emotion is directed - love. The tension between the Ego and the ideal is experienced as inferiority. between the Id and the Ego, are perceived as drives, impulses, desires. Thus, the Ego is not such a weak formation. Moreover, the Ego is a symbol, not a substance, and is a function of the organism. It is noteworthy that Perls, putting forward the idea of ​​the processuality of the Ego, often, in his book, contradicted it, calling the Ego “formation,” thereby returning its structural character. From the works of Federn, Perls drew the idea of ​​​​the boundaries of the Ego. Having transformed it, he argued that the Ego consists entirely of “borderlands” - contact zones. Functions of the Ego:1. Identification (based on assimilated material). It should be distinguished from imaginary identification (pseudo-identification), which consists of merging with the image. Mechanisms of pseudo-identification: introjection, expansion of ego boundaries. Refusal of identification often requires energy expenditure.2. Rejection(alienation). In contrast, pseudo-alienation is considered, which manifests itself in suppression and is carried out through projection and/or narrowing of the boundaries of the Ego.3. Integration (choice).4. Responsibility.5. Organismic regulation (later, this idea is transformed into the idea of ​​the contact cycle). Its task is organismal balance (metabolism between the body and the environment). Regulation includes the following processes and stages: The body is at rest. An irritating factor that can be: an external irritant - a requirement in relation to the subject or any intervention that forces him to defend himself; an internal irritant - a need that has gained sufficient strength of desire for satisfaction. Creation image or real object (functions of addition/exclusion and figure-ground phenomenon). A response to a situation aimed at reducing tension (achieving satisfaction or fulfilling demands), leading to: Return of organismic balance. Separately, it is worth noting the topic of resistance. In some places in his book, the author writes about resistance as a function of the Ego, and in others as its loss. Perls was convinced that it was impossible to destroy resistance, and it was not necessary. Resistance is an energy that is valuable to our personality. In psychoanalysis, resistance was seen as an obstacle to recovery. Therefore, the psychoanalyst was faced with the task of breaking the patient’s resistance. Perls identified the following types of resistance:v Anal resistance - the desire to hold on.v Oral resistance - refusal to absorb physical or mental food: direct avoidance, which manifests itself in ignoring the presence of others, wandering thoughts, polite but indifferent listening, feigned interest, obsessive tendency contradict, intellectualization.v Genital resistance - refusal of heterosexual contact, which can be caused by shyness, fear of infection, etc., resulting in frigidity and impotence. These types of resistances were also highlighted in psychoanalysis, but Perls considered them in a broader context, without strictly linking them with the sexual instinct. v Dental resistance - refusal to use one’s aggressive impulses to extract and chew mental and material food. Dental prohibition manifests itself: A) characterologically in the form of: Unlimited parasitism (everything is needed); Suppressed parasitism (as if nothing is needed); Overcompensated parasitism (fear to remain hungry).B) in social development - the accumulation of paranoid aggression. C) in stupefaction (manifested in the encouragement of introjection, in a decrease in the level of dental metabolism (swallowing only light mental food)).v Sensorimotor resistance (manifests in the form of bodily reactions).v Intellectual resistance - justifications, rationalizations, verbal demands of conscience.v Emotional resistance. Perls gives a mechanism for the development of this type of resistance. The experience of negative emotions (fear, disgust, shame, embarrassment) stops (suppresses). In this case, only expression (manifestation) is suppressed, but not the emotion itself. Stopping leads to unfinished situations. Replacing a negative emotion with a positive one is impossible. Perls was convinced that emotion should be expressed directly and directly. The expression will lead to a discharge of voltage, which will first become tolerable and then go to the zero point. Energy approach to the study of personality. Drive energy. Freud believed that the driving forces of behavior are instincts, which manifest themselves in the form of desires (bodily needs). Desires cause excitement (accumulation of energy in one place), which requires discharge. At the same time, there are 2 types of energy (drives, instincts):v The energy of life - sexual energy, libido.v The energy of death - aggressive, destructive energy - Thanatos. Perls considered the concept of "Energy" as an aspect of the body's function. He believed that energy is immanent (inherent) to an event and notmust be considered a force which, being inseparable from the event, nevertheless caused it in some magical way. Perls wondered how such a great scientist as Freud could admit the existence of such a magical force as these two types of energy. However, despite his opposition to psychoanalysis in the person of S. Freud, Perls, perhaps deciding to justify his great teacher, offered his explanation of Freud’s train of thought: “... obsessive repetitions become rigid and lifeless like inorganic matter. Reflections on this life-denying matter led to the idea of ​​the existence of an instinct for nirvana or death, which manifests itself in a passion for destruction." Having acquitted, Perls continues to object, arguing that nothing can confirm the existence of the death instinct. And Perls suggests calling the “attraction to nirvana” the innate desire to restore peace through the satisfaction of instinct. True, as he argued, the postulation of the “instinct” of nirvana may turn out to be wishful thinking, since the period of rest lasts very briefly until a new need arises. Developing further the theme of instincts, Perls expressed the belief that all instincts can be divided into 2 groups: self-preservation (satisfying food needs, self-defense); species preservation (sexual instincts). . Historical approach to the study of personality. Freud, taking the sexual instinct as a basis, in his psychodynamic concept of personality identified the following phases of psychosexual development: oral (from 0 to 2 years); anal (from 2 to 4 years); phallic (from 3 to 5.6 years); latent (from 6 up to 12 years old); genital (from 12 years old). Perls, having analyzed the food instinct, identified the following stages in the development of an individual, linking them with the appearance of teeth and changes in eating behavior: Prenatal (before birth). Predental (infant - no teeth; feeding behavior - sucking). Incisal (associated with the appearance of incisors and the ability to bite).Molar (the appearance of molars leads to confident biting and the ability to chew). At the same time, there is an analogy in the processes of consuming physical and mental food. Theory and practice of concentration (hereinafter referred to as awareness). In the book "Ego, Hunger and Aggression", the word "awareness" is not yet a term, and is used simply as a verb. In further literature (GT Practice) - “awareness” becomes a term characterizing contact. Concentration is distinguished: ideal - a harmonious process of conscious and unconscious cooperation; negative - exclusively a function of the Ego - identification with duty, conscience. In this case, coercion is retroflexed. Characterizes a clinging attitude; obsessive - coercion is projected. "Empty" attitude. Concentration is used to: cure neurotic and paranoid disorders (healing neuroses is more difficult); to improve the quality of life (fullness of sensations, interest). True, in other places in the book the author is not so optimistic about the use of this method and believed that positive results can be achieved by treating only neurasthenia. He considered the signs of neurasthenia to be: lack of concentration (avoidance); impaired coordination of the motor system (headache, back pain, fatigue); lack of interest in life. In psychoanalysis, the main method of treatment is the analysis of free associations, dreams, and slips of the tongue. It is believed that their interpretation leads to the return of repressed material from the Unconscious to the Conscious, and this automatically leads to healing. In fact, Perls is convinced, the returned parts often do not become functions of the ego, but are re-projected. Concentration allows you to work with material that is an unfinished gestalt, and is so strong that it comes to the fore as a symptom or other disguised form of expression. Such symptoms may include: eating disorders; aversion; constipation (associated with refusal)